Causes of intense borrowing of anglicisms in the modern Russian language

The causes of borrowing foreign words have been studied by many linguists in the early twentieth century, However, the identification of the causes of the borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation of language and external, non-linguistic, reasons. So, in the work of L. P. Krysina States that E. Richter the main reason for borrowing words considers the need to name things and concepts. Lists and other causes, different in nature – linguistic, proofreading, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new language forms, the need for compartmentalization of concepts in variety of media and in their completeness, brevity and clarity, convenience, etc. the process of linguistic borrowing was considered by him to be inseparable from cultural and other contacts between two different societies and language as part and result of such contact.
After Rat L. P. M. A. Breiter identifies the following reasons for borrowing and proofreading:
1. The lack of the corresponding concept in the cognitive basis of language-receptor. In the vocabulary of a business person 90 years, firmly established English words such as badge, the classifier, the laptop and its new varieties: audiobook and PowerBook; organizer, pager and Tager, holster, timer, beeper, scrambler, intercom, shredder, overhead, plotter, scanner, tuner, toner, pack, and others.
He pointed to the cases when borrowing was used to Express the concepts that are new to the receptor language and not available in the source. Since it does not correspond to the first reason, we will add: in the language-receptor feel the need to define “actively pulsating” phenomenon; in your language is not the exact word, but in another language (in our case English) there are two units that, when connected (on Russian soil) suitable for the name. That is, here we have not so much borrowing, how much the formation of new Russian words of non-Russian elements. The author cites the example of “anglicism” shopping tour understandable for the native speakers of Russian, but has no equivalent in English, thus, it is not in the full sense of the anglicism. Here you can talk about separate borrowing two elements and merge them into a complex name in the language-receptor. This model of productive word in the English language and meets the word-formation potentialities in the Russian language. Updating the specified derivational models are in composite auto tour. The practice of traveling abroad for the purchase of a car in the West is not, therefore, the word was formed on Russian soil. Composite shopping tour is contained in 2281 document 738 on the Internet sites, which testifies to the particular of its popularity in the late 90-ies. The variability of his writing (shopping tour, shopping tour, shoptur) does not always indicate the first stage of assimilation of the elements of this composite, since such variability may be the result of ignorance of the originator of the document on the Internet: the Russian travel Agency “Marktrail” offers fur-tours in Vilnius, replacing the anglicism shop in the Russian equivalent of coats. In this case we have paronomasia: Russians like this I want to buy coats. In print, we came across the composite Lough tour (Loch klutz): “those who want to go to Loch tour, donate money!” (MK.2000.01.24).
2. The absence (will add more precise) names (or “lose” in competition with borrowing) in the language-receptor.

The reason for borrowing often determines the function of the anglicism.
In the case of coexistence of borrowing and the original or previously mastered the naming function of anglicisms is the designation of Western realities or stylistic marking of text, but Russian equivalents are used to describe Russian reality: “the Prince of darkness” is pure horror, “Viy” is the first Russian horror movie, etc.
3. Ensuring stylistic (emphatic) effect. For example, a review of the book “the Worlds of Paul Anderson” was entitled “Pharmacy. Street. The lantern”. The expression of the title associated with intertextually (an allusion to Alexander Blok’s line “Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy”…). Emphatic function may be due to omogenia connecting interlingual meanings (CP. VINAP – UP WIN). The effect of this factor is infrequent and is designed for a high degree of linguistic competence of speakers.
4. The expression of positive or negative connotations, which does not have the equivalent unit in the language-receptor. The author indicates that among native speakers of the Russian language is widespread perception that foreign technology is more advanced compared to Russian, foreign banks are more reliable, foreign goods are of higher quality. This installation, according to the author, is widely used in advertising, where borrowing is used for the purpose of actualization of positive connotations. For example, company auto-rental instead of the “car of cars”, the best pub instead of beer, etc.
It should be noted that in the late 90-ies of the excessive use of anglicisms in advertising and in the media is clearly causing a negative reaction among the majority Russian-speaking population, so creating positive connotations with the help of anglicisms – a controversial issue at present.
Turning to the list of reasons for borrowing, proposed by L. P. Rat, we saw that our above clarification was confirmed. L. P. Krysin stresses the use of foreign language vocabulary and, with it, social moments:
1. The need to name new things, new phenomena, etc.
2. The need to distinguish between the substantial close, but still different concepts.
3. The need for specialization of concepts in a particular field, for a variety of purposes.
4. Trend, namely that the entire, not dissected into individual components of the object and label should be “whole”, presciliano and not a combination of words.
The current English language-based terminology of computer technology easily updated with new terms of English origin. Words website, banner, browser, and others are used in the speech of people dealing with computers, which is becoming every year more and more. Consequently, these anglicisms from the purely professional sphere become the usage of many Russian people.
A similar process can be observed in sports terminology, as well as in non-codified language the subsystems of language, such as slang of drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians, and others, dominated the English words or calques from English words.
The tendency of establishing the correspondence between the indivisibility of object and odnoimennomu, odnolistnosti is observed in the case when the filling of empty cells, which corresponds to a certain meaning, but meaning – in the form of a single word is missing (instead used descriptive turnover) [3, p. 59]. As mentioned above, the reason for borrowing is closely related to the first reason, and almost always they should be viewed together, although the second reason can be called a narrow, more specific: the speaker saves the effort of speech, language involves filling out some cells the nomination.
For example, the word timeshare, denoting the reality of the West, is actively used by Russian tourist firms involved in international tourism: “to Buy a timeshare is to enter into a agreement in which you buy the right to own property within a certain amount of time in a year” (SIC. 1999.19.06.). Anglicism in this case and nominates a new concept, and simultaneously replaces a cumbersome descriptive Russian revolution.
Anglicisms Zapper (zapper – man, endlessly switching the channels on the TV) and zapping (switching process) are also intended to replace the Russian narrative momentum. Not to say that these tokens mastered the Russian language due to the novelty of the concept, but the potential degree of their development is quite high: “the Zapping or channel switching is a period of intense encounters with television” (the Rambler. 2000.05.23).
Anglicism quiz replaces the descriptive turn “a radio or television game in questions and answers on different topics with prizes”. “Daily updated “news”, there are quizzes for fans of the quizzes, login to the game for the players, made bad trips” (Russian magazine. 2000.17.04.).
Descriptive turnover is a solution of the antinomy “speaker – listener” in favor of the latter, and its replacement with one word – in favor of the speaker [2, p. 34].
Among socio-psychological factors influencing the borrowing process is the increasing amount of speaking and knowledge of English language in Russia. A large flow of people leaving the country, a long time living in English-speaking countries and returning back causes frequent switching into English, the so-called “switching code” (“code-switching”). For example, “He asks me: “May I help you?” Have to respond: “Just looking around” (from the speech of two immigrants)” In this case the speaker is not just using Americanisms in speech, it goes from one language to another. The impact of emigration on the process of borrowing not so high degree as a broad knowledge of the English language, it is essential for the process of borrowing.
Many linguists point to the prestige of English words in some situations compared to the Russians. L. P. Krysin calls this phenomenon “the grade”: the word in language-the source refers to an ordinary object, in the borrowing language belongs to the object, in some sense more significant, more prestigious, etc, according to L. P. Krysina, in English, the name of the shop (shop shop) not applicable to every store, but only to that which sells prestigious products. [3, p. 61]. This judgment is controversial, as in the late 90-ies this anglicism is called common shops, it is especially accepted among young people: “These two does not in shop for vodka went!”
In addition, in the Russian language of the end of the century English composites operate mini-shops, coffeeshops, sex shops, print shops (print salons) calling the shops selling ordinary goods.
The expressiveness of novelty is one of the persistent reasons for borrowing anglicisms as more prestigious, significant, expressive [5, p. 152]. Anglicisms have in front of Russian synonyms the advantage that a speaker’s certificate in social terms in some areas more highly, stress awareness, and claim the superiority of a certain group of young people that use this vocabulary.
A powerful impetus for the development of the process of borrowing English vocabulary is its use in speech influential personalities during popular programs. So, speaking for the game of KVN of the first season of 1999, the head of ORT used the word drive (“Long ago there was no such drive”) to mean “fuse”, “power”. Then purely musical term has become widely used among students. Perhaps this was influenced by his Russian case form. “Come on, no drive!” In the “OSP-Studio” from October 23, 1999 moderator welcomed the audience: “Hello, bums and treskavica!” (from the English. trash – trash, garbage). Immediately the word was picked up by young native speakers of Russian.
Among social causes of the occurrence of anglicisms in Russian language we, following L. P. Rat, believe that “the communicative relevance of the concept” and the corresponding words [3, p. 61]. If the concept addresses an important sphere of human activity, the word denoting this concept, naturally, becomes common, it readily forms derivatives on Russian soil, is the object of conscious consumption and related obygryvanii and puns. Over time, the relevance of words can be lost and Vice versa, a word borrowed in the beginning of the century, may reach the peak of its usage in the end of the century.
So, the external reasons for borrowing anglicisms “gathered” from internal (e.g., the communicative relevance of Anglo-Americanism) through socio-psychological, it is especially noticeable in the shift of antinomies “talking / listening” in favor of the first in a pronounced tendency to replace Russian turnover descriptive one (English) word: trafficking (transport and trafficking), the tagger (the person making the graffiti spray), Zapper (man, constantly switching the channels on the TV). Significantly increased the number of Russian-speaking people who know English. Often in spoken English the situation is more prestigious than Russian, the expression of its attractive novelty, it can accentuate high level information of the speaker. The use of anglicism in the speech of an authoritative person (or in advertising) may become a push for assimilation in the Russian language.

How to proofread your text?

As the author to proofread the text and how to use proofreading tools for Microsoft Word. As the author to proofread the text and how to use proofreading tools for Microsoft Word Foreword
On the literary forums readers pay attention to low-quality set of published works on the author’s inconsiderate to proof text and make the author note: “the Text is not proofread”.

Under this phrase means is often poor proofreading is what catches the eye: typos, some spelling errors, errors in the alignment of punctuation marks, incorrect spacing. The task of proofreading is wider, but the claim to the author — just. Casually recruited and untrusted text to read and difficult to perceive, and yet he published it to his read, evaluated, and helped author the Council.

How to proofread your text? What to check and fix? And how to do it virtually, using the tools in Microsoft Word?

For those authors who are asking these questions, and written in this article.

Mainly it is addressed to authors of literary and artistic works prepared for publication on the forum, website or blog.

The authors of specific texts containing complex for a set of elements (formulas, tables, footnotes, special characters and so on), the article is useful, at least in the part in which is given the task of proofreading and its major directions.

Tips on proofreading, and is applicable also to published online reports-to posts, especially to large. They should gather not in the “Answer” or “Comment” and first in Microsoft Word (creating in the folder “My documents” a new file), to be able to check for typos and blemishes kit.

Below we’ll be talking about proofreading and simultaneous editing when working with an electronic version of the text. But whoever will read the text on the screen and on paper, can also refer to this article, omitting only place that describe the practical steps for using the tools in Microsoft Word.

1. The task of proofreading
Generally speaking, proofreading is the editorial and publishing process. The publishers in preparing this text for publication in paper or electronic book, newspaper and magazine publication writing and editing of the manuscript (publishing) is engaged concealer qualifications.

Proofreading is a thorough examination of the text being edited. Its main objectives:

— to identify spelling and punctuation mistakes;

— to identify all kinds of literal and typographical errors matched errors, violate technical rules of typing and its specific elements;

— mark not seen previously semantic, stylistic or factual errors;

— choose the most appropriate for this type of text in the form of words (e.g. in what form will be written the ordinal and cardinal numerals, various abbreviations, units of measurement, whether to use names-middle name or initials only);

— choose a form of punctuation (quotation mark, parentheses, dashes);

— to identify similar elements and lead to uniform design of each of the groups (headers, dates, geographical names and other names, terms, punctuation, units of measurement, abbreviations, bibliographic references, and lists, notes, captions, tables, formulas, headers, footers, quotes, poetry and many other elements, depending on the type of text and its specific features);

— identify the parts of the text that can be understood ambiguously set in the Latin or Cyrillic letters, numbers and symbols that have the same graphic form (for example, the letter “W” and the number “3”).

Of these tasks, we will proceed in the conduct of his copyright review. And since we have proofreading electronic versions of the text, we will not only “identify”, “select”, but to immediately make corrections to the file.

to be continued.

Proofreading

Syntactic differences

The subject of the matching on the syntactic level are grammatical models of word combinations and sentences. At this level distinguish only the distribution of differences. Consider the following examples:

I have a Rolls that was in dead storage during the war which I have ordered put back in running order (H O a g a).

Last year an American hotel manager ordered his guests evacuated after an anonimous bomb threat.

He also had ordered his luggage to be labelled for Crew (Bronte).

The first two examples are borrowed from American sources, the latter from the British. Both syntactic models (complex addition and sacrament II and complex addition with the passive form of the infinitive) exist both in British and in American English.

In this case it is lexically conditioned by the distribution of this combination, i.e. the possibility of using it in contexts with the verb to order. While locally marked only one member of the opposition is to order something done, since the construction with a passive infinitive is used in AE, though much less frequently.

In other cases, there are known fluctuations in lexically conditioned by the distribution of some elements contrasted structures. For example, in some verb phrases there are discrepancies related to the possibility or impossibility of the use of prepositional-nominal turnover for a given verb. In the British version, in phrases with the verb to battle, you must use the preposition with or against, whereas in American English the verb does not require behind preposition:

The Committee headed by Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, Herbert Lehman and Thomas Finletter R. has been battling the machine of Tammany boss Carmino De Sapiro.

They battled with the winds and waves.

Similar differences are revealed and word combinations with the verb to protest, which in the British version requires after prepositions against, or over, and in the American version is used without preposition:

A committee of clergymen called on him to protest his policy on vice (S t e f f e n s).

Mrs. Helga Ellis Herz, 79, set fire to herself and was severely burned to protest US bombing raids in Vietnam.

In this case, differences in the distribution of the second component of the phrase is due not only to the verb as such, but also its semantic structure. Distribution differences were only detected in those cases where the verb is used to mean “to protest”. Then, when he means “strongly approve”(to protest one’s innocence), in both cases, the following construction is used without a preposition.

The discrepancies related to the compatibility of certain verbs with prepositions, is not observed any regularity. If in these examples, inherent to the AE was besprizornye combinations, in the examples below, typical of the American variant are combinations with prepositions:

You have visited with Iowa Wesleyan in words and pictures on the foregoing pages.

Apropos of which, Alfred, I met with Mr. Creighton Duffy recently (O H as g a).

In particular the group should be allowed to occur in the APT phrase consisting of the verb go or come and infinitive without to:

Course I’ve had bits of chances to go live in Minneapolis (Lewi s).

I hoped he d swallow that tobacco and go choke himself (Maltz).

But I want you and Alfred and the baby to come have a long visit with me (H O a g a).

In the example, locally marked variant syntactic units used in AE. In other cases, locally marked member of the contrast option is used in BE. Compare the following examples:

“My books, let me show you them” (Marckwardt).

I won’t tell it you (His),

I told it you before (Fowler).

Design, in which the indirect object follows the direct type you show them, not being used in the American version. In BE, according to R. Kurka, the order of components of verb-object collocations is considered quite natural”, though there are some less than that observed in structures of the type show you them, used in both versions. It can be assumed that the relatively smaller structures POTREBITELEJJ show you them due, in particular, the known structural limitations, narrowing the range of their use. The fact that this word order is possible only in cases where the direct object is expressed by a pronoun.

You can read more about proofreading at Proofreading Service